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The passage discusses the debate surrounding planetary protection policies, particularly the concerns about contaminating Mars with Earth-based microbes. The author argues against these concerns, citing several reasons why the risk of contamination should not hinder human exploration and development of Mars. These reasons include:
the lack of evidence for life on Mars (describes Mars as a “bleak, rusted landscape” with no confirmed life) [Option a]
the disregard for such protocols by international competitors (China’s lenient approach to planetary protection) [Option b]
the historical precedent of contamination from earlier human missions (Apollo missions left waste on the Moon) [Option d]
On the other hand, Option c is not presented as a valid reason. The author does not specifically argue that probes have had “little effect” on the Moon's environment but instead focuses on human waste and contamination from earlier human missions, not robotic probes.